Skip to content

Chapter 5 | Conclusion

Conclusion

The federal government orchestrated the peopling of Oklahoma. It would be a homeland for Native nations. It would be a Black promised land. It would be a white homesteading land. Within a short period of time lands held in common by Native nations or held in trust by the federal government were redistributed as allotments to tribal citizens. The remaining surplus land became available to non-Native citizens as homesteads. Black people established new All-Black towns, with the majority located in Indian Territory.

<em>Non-Indian Settlement, 1870–1906</em>
FIG. 5.21

Non-Indian Settlement, 1870–1906

Non-Indian Settlement, 1870–1906, by Charles Banks Wilson. This painting illustrates the flurry of activity of non-Native settlement in Oklahoma Territory. A rider on horseback holds a banner reading “Go Forth and Possess The Promised Land.” The train is overflowing with would-be land run participants, who sought a parcel of land to call their own.

Courtesy of the Capitol Art Collection, Oklahoma Arts Council.
FIG. 5.21

Non-Indian Settlement, 1870–1906, by Charles Banks Wilson. This painting illustrates the flurry of activity of non-Native settlement in Oklahoma Territory. A rider on horseback holds a banner reading “Go Forth and Possess The Promised Land.” The train is overflowing with would-be land run participants, who sought a parcel of land to call their own.

Courtesy of the Capitol Art Collection, Oklahoma Arts Council.

Some tribal members such as Chitto Harjo and his followers refused to accept allotment. Eventually Native nations lost half of their land to the United States. Although allotment was supposed to benefit individual Native people, the process of guardianship combined with lucrative oil leases on properties ended up enriching white guardians rather than Native landowners. The Homestead Act of 1862 provided a way for Indigenous land to be redistributed. This in turn led to the opening of land for settlement in 1889. Land-hungry newcomers raced to claim tracts of government land during a series of land runs.

Bill Pickett on Horseback
FIG. 5.22

Bill Pickett on Horseback

Bill Pickett on horseback, early 1900s. Pickett is best known as the inventor of bulldogging, or wrestling a steer to the ground. A popular rodeo performer, in 1905 Pickett joined the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild West Show, based in Ponca City.

Courtesy of the Oklahoma Historical Society.
FIG. 5.22

Bill Pickett on horseback, early 1900s. Pickett is best known as the inventor of bulldogging, or wrestling a steer to the ground. A popular rodeo performer, in 1905 Pickett joined the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Wild West Show, based in Ponca City.

Courtesy of the Oklahoma Historical Society.

Lucille Mulhall
FIG. 5.23

Lucille Mulhall

Lucille Mulhall is known as America’s first cowgirl. Born in 1885, she grew up on her family’s ranch in Mulhall, Oklahoma. Mulhall was among the first women to compete against men in roping and riding rodeo events, and earned such titles as “Champion Lady Steer Roper of the World.” She performed for future president Theodore Roosevelt and thousands of others at a Rough Riders Reunion in Oklahoma City in 1900.

Courtesy of the Oklahoma Historical Society.
FIG. 5.23

Lucille Mulhall is known as America’s first cowgirl. Born in 1885, she grew up on her family’s ranch in Mulhall, Oklahoma. Mulhall was among the first women to compete against men in roping and riding rodeo events, and earned such titles as “Champion Lady Steer Roper of the World.” She performed for future president Theodore Roosevelt and thousands of others at a Rough Riders Reunion in Oklahoma City in 1900.

Courtesy of the Oklahoma Historical Society.

The period between 1890 and 1907 was a time of struggle for equality in Oklahoma. Education that had previously been available to all became segregated. Though the Black population boomed and All-Black towns flourished, voting rights came under challenge. As opportunities began to lessen for Black people in Oklahoma, some Black residents considered leaving Oklahoma.

The next chapter examines the discussions and decisions surrounding statehood in Oklahoma. Would Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory join the United States as two states or would they come together as one state? What rights did the state constitution provide its citizens? Were all citizens included?

Short Answer Questions

  1. List two factors that led to increased Black emigration to Indian Territory.

  2. What vision did E. P. McCabe have for Oklahoma Territory?

  3. What were the goals of David Payne and the Boomers? How did they try to achieve their goals?

  4. What did the Organic Act create? What did it authorize the US President to do?

  5. The Dawes Act established the process of allotments. Describe the process for receiving an allotment.

Short Response Questions

  1. Describe the attempts to create an All-Black state in Indian Territory. In your response be sure to include information about the Homestead Act, E. P. McCabe, and the settlement of All-Black towns.

  2. Explain why and how the Dawes Act and the creation of Tribal Rolls for land allotments were resisted by tribal leaders. In your response, be sure to include information about Chitto Harjo and the Crazy Snake Rebellion.