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Chapter 3 | Conclusion

Conclusion

The years between the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the end of the Civil War in 1865 were critical to the development of what became Oklahoma. This was a place defined by both voluntary and involuntary exploration.

Early descriptions of the region on maps and in expedition reports had a major influence on the lives and destinies of its inhabitants. The “brilliant whiteness” of the salt plains and the abundant river systems sparked hope for economic development. The natural beauty described by Thomas Nuttall intrigued those interested in the complex habitats the land had to offer. But the characterization of Oklahoma as the Great American Desert justified the removal of Indigenous people of the Southeast to a place that would be theirs in perpetuity. Because no one else would want it, until they did.

The removal of the Five Tribes led to great suffering and inhumane treatment. It led to forced exploration of Oklahoma, where they would survive, adapt, and eventually thrive. Then came the most divisive and brutal war in American history. And no one emerged unscathed. The next chapter will examine the ways Reconstruction Treaties unleashed new suffering on the Five Tribes. The treaties led to another phase of removal. They led to the loss of tribal governments. They led to more land losses. They also opened up settlement opportunities for non-Indigenous people lured by the “promise” of Manifest Destiny and westward expansion.

Short Answer Questions

  1. What boundaries did the Adams-Onís Treaty establish and which nations signed the treaty?

  2. What was important about the work of botanist Thomas Nuttall?

  3. What was the most significant result of US-led expeditions into Oklahoma? Explain why it was significant.

  4. Identify two ways the southeastern tribes had similar cultural traditions.

  5. What is one way the Indian Removal Act impacted the sovereignty of southeastern tribes?

Short Response Questions

  1. Select two US expeditions to Oklahoma from the list below that you believe are most important. Explain where each expedition traveled, the information the expedition gathered, and the consequences of the expedition. In your response, be sure to explain how the expedition changed public perceptions of the land. (Pike-Wilkinson Expedition, Sibley Expedition, Nuttall Expedition, Long-Bell Expedition)

  2. In what ways did the US Civil War create an “impossible situation” for tribal governments? In your response be sure to include how alliances shifted before and during the war.